Developmental Trajectory
Age
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Dimensions of Development
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Motor Skills
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Imitation
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Play
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Reality Monitoring
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Perspective-Taking
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Mindreading
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Birth to 16.5 mos. | Mouthing (Belsky & Most, 1981) | Global empathic distress, shared negative affect, unclear whether self or other is distressed (Hoffman, 1984) | ||||
Birth to 15 mos. | Simple manipulation = visually guided manipulation (Belsky & Most, 1981) | |||||
9 to 10.5 mos. | Enactive naming = approximate pretense activity withouth confirming evidence of actual pretense behavior (Belsky & Most, 1981) | |||||
12 mos. | Begin Pretend-self; Self-referenced actions in pretense ( Belsky & Most, 1981; Piaget, 1962; Nicholich,1977) | Sympathetic distress now possible with formation of self-representation and person permanence, attempts to help others are inappropriate because lacks perspective-taking skills (Hoffman, 1984) | ||||
13.5mos |
Relational = bringing together two or more objects in a way not intended by the manufacturer; Begin Pretend-other, Sequence pretend, and Sequence pretend substitution (Belsky & Most, 1981; Haight & Miller, 1993) |
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15 mos. | Functional-Relational = bringing together and integrating two obects in a way inteded by the manufacturer (Belsky & Most, 1981) | |||||
20 mos. | use language to attribute agency in pretense (Fenson, 1984) | |||||
2 yrs. |
can represent own and another's mental state in pretense (Leslie, 1987); ascribe agency to people and toys during play (Wolf, 1982; McCune, 1995); understand adult's actions in pretense alters the simulation (Harris & Kavanaugh, 1993); understand doll-directed pretense scenarios (e.g., doll is hungry) (Kavanaugh, Eizenman, & Harris, 1997) | |||||
2.5 yrs. | assign passive agency (e.g., sleeping) to ojects in play ( Bretherton, 1984; Fenson, 1984; Watson, 1977; Wolf, 1984); action-based attributions of ageny in pretense (Fenson, 1984) | |||||
3 yrs. | describe imaginary inferences resultiung from pretense, often with novel terms (Kavanaugh, Eizenman, & Harris, 1997) | accurate memories of own actions; confuse memories of imagined and pretended actions with those performed = indicates sensory-perceptual encoding (Welch-Ross, 1995); incorrectly remember real identity of objects in abstract substitutions (1994); remember object identity independent of actions on it, incorrectly remember true identity as pretend identity in object substitutions (Amsel et al., 1996; Harris, 1991; Dilalla, 1988; Foley, 1984; Johnson, 1994)); remember both identities in substitutions equally well while pretending (Flavell, 1987; Harris, 1994; Lillard, 1992); when asked difficult questions about pretense-reality distinction return to pretense scenario with no answer (Golomb et al., 1996) | increased ability to perspective-take leads to more sophisticated empathy, helping becomes more appropriate (Hoffman, 1984) | can think about pretense mental states as representations of an alternative event (Flavell, 1987; Hickling, 1993; Seier); assign active or independent agency to objects in play (Bretherton, 1984; Fenson, 1984; Watson, 1977; Wolf, 1984) | ||
4 yrs. | accurate memories of own actions; accurate memories of pretended actions ; confuse imagined actions with pretended actions = indicates encoding pretense as a fictional simulation (Welch-Ross, 1995); better memory for real and pretend object identities after pretense ends (Amsel et al., 1996); when asked difficult questions about pretense-reality distinction give reversibility and/or identity explanations (Golomb et al., 1996) | understand fictional mental states(Perner, 1991; Harris & Kavanaugh, 1993); tend to say pretending is related to the body and not the mind (Lillard, 1995); assign pretend emotions and cognitions to objects in play (Wolf, 1984) | ||||
5 yrs. | accurate memories of own actions; accurate memories of pretended actions; confuse imagined actions with pretended actions = indicates encoding pretense as a fictional simulation (Welch-Ross, 1995) |
tend to say pretending is related to the body and not the mind (Lillard, 1995) |
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6 yrs. | correctly remember real identity of objects in abstract substitutions |
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